Classical
Masks of Sri Lanka
The Yakun Natima - devil dance
ritual of Sri Lanka
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Text by Alan Pate
Photography by Mary
Wickline
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Garra yakka mask, 9 3/4
inches
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A MIDNIGHT ceremony. Crowds
milling, bodies slick with sweat in the tropical night. Torches lining an
earthen arena. A patient is dazed with illness, propped on a low seat. The
rhythmic beat of drums. The smell of smoking resin. A figure enters, back first
and the rhythm of the drums changes, intensifies. The figure whirls and the
patient is suddenly presented with the face of his tormentor!
The yakun natima, or devil dance
ritual of Sri Lanka, is nothing if not full of drama. Not just a charade or
interval designed to entertain, the yakun natima is a carefully crafted ritual
with a history reaching far back into Sri Lanka's pre-Buddhist past. It combines
ancient Ayurvedic concepts of disease causation with deftpsychological
manipulation. Lasting up to twelve hours, it mixes raucous humour with
deep-rooted fears to create a healing catharsis for both patient and community.
Kolam
natima mask of the
wolf-headed Mahasohona, the Great Cemetery Devil; depth 9 1/2 inches |
But while the beating of the
bereya drums, the torchlight, and the smoky resin contribute to the aura of the
night's magic, it is the masked face of the edura, or exorcist/shaman, that
personifies the power of the moment-the devil incarnate (1). It is the mask or
vesmuna which localises the fears and anxieties of both patient and audience. To
the Sinhalese, it is this face, carved of wood, with bulging eyes, protruding
nose and gaping mouth, disfigured and fierce, which represents both cause and
cure (2).
For the ethnographer, the
traditional belief systems and practices surrounding the yakun natima and other
Huniyam yakka mask, the
Black Prince of Sorcery, 10 1/2 inches |
Masked dance rituals of Sri
Lanka's southern coast provide a rich and fascinating field for research. For
the collector, these ritual masks represent a sophisticated folk art form;
beautiful and mysterious. Carved of wood and pigmented with natural hues and
resins, these masks are infused with a spirit and animation which command
attention. The patination of a ritual mask, darkened by years of use, and the
repairs upon repairs of cherished examples bespeak their importance within their
village communities. Within the context of the dance they are hypnotising. Taken
out of that context and viewed on their own they are masterpieces of a rich folk
art tradition (3).
To look at a complete collection
of late nineteenth century ritual dance masks provides insight into the imagery
and beauty that are the essence of these powerful spiritual talismans.
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Crop fertility talisman,
8 1/2 inches |
Sri Lanka
Lanka, the land foretold by the
Buddha to be the stronghold of Buddhism in the time to come; Ceylon, a colonial
outpost for the Portuguese, Dutch and British in succession; the Spice Isle,
source of teas and spices which titillated the world; Screndip, an almost
mythical paradise. Sri Lanka, home to some of the world's most beautiful
landscapes and the scene of seemingly endless turmoil and bloodshed, has had
many names and wears many faces.
The medical systems of the
Sinhalese have been renowned since the first century B.C. when the northern
capital in Anuradhapura boasted some eighteen hospitals. Traditional Ayurvedic
principles practised for centuries-balancing internal humours to promote and
modify health-are now being studied and implemented by many Western healthcare
professionals. But predating these systems, and stretching far back into
antiquity, there has been an alternative system of healing, a system based on
early Vedic concepts of aetiology, in which diseases and ills of all sorts were
believed to be caused by demons. Identified predominantly by the symptoms
manifested by the patient, these demons could be summoned and exorcised in
stylised ritual mask dances, or natima.
Rukada
pregnancy talisman, 7 inches |
Shaman
The various natima of Sri Lanka
belong to that great Asian mask tradition which extends from the Indian
subcontinent, across the high Himalayas, through the Southeast Asian
archipelago, northwards onto the Siberian plains and into Korea. Within these
diverse cultures the masked shaman plays a central role, bridging the gap
between the natural and the omnipresent supernatural. Through various
transformation rituals the shaman blurs these perceived boundaries, comforts his
community, diverts evil and effectuates healing.
In Sinhalese society the edura
works alongside the rest of society. He wears no special clothes, as a monk
would, nor is he granted special status. He lives within the community with no
divisions. It is only when his special services are required that the edura sets
himself apart. Much of the preliminaries and ritualised aspects of the masked
dance rituals are designed to distance the edura from the rest of society.
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Dala sanni yakka mask,
whoopingcough, 5 1/4 inches |
Through a complex and
sophisticated mixture of theatre and drama, which includes wearing special
clothes, burning his own body and simulated death experiences, the edura creates
a space where in his mind and in the mind of his fellow villagers he "becomes"
something other and takes on the essence of and personifies the afflicting
demon.
Most important to this transformation both
visually and psychologically are the fantastic masks worn during these rituals.
Representing specific demons and the maladies they inflict upon man, the masks
allow the edura to embody, at least temporarily, demons which normally exist
only on a supernatural plane. This personification allows for dialogue and,
amidst frenzied dance and ritualised chants and speeches, provides an
opportunity to discuss the troubles facing the individual and the community. The
edura, cloaked in the power and visage of the demon, creates a visible and
immediate link between the natural and the supernatural. As the embodiment of
the afflicting demon he cites causes for disease, discusses immediate concerns
for the community, and following the reception of a tribute, he promises to lift
the illness: tindui nivarani ("it is done").
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Naga sanni Yakka mask,
nightmares, 9 inches |
Sinhalese Cosmology
The cosmology of traditional Sri
Lankan beliefs is a complex mixture of native Vedic gods, spirits, and demons,
overlaid with imported Hindu and Buddhist deities, beliefs, and practices. This
pantheon is vast, filled with hierarchies and sub-hierarchies which the
uninitiated finds nearly impossible to grasp. The synthesis is a spiritual
landscape where Buddha reigns supreme, but where the day-to-day is fraught with
danger from the yakku (devils) and other malignant forces (vas) which seem all
too ready to afflict man with scourges of every description. In this word, life
is a constant struggle against these forces.
Central to this struggle are the
natima devil dances-masked dance ceremonies to cure diseases, help failing crops
(4), prevent drougth, and provide protection for troubled pregnancies (5). A
cast of specific characters and dramas have developed over the centuries to
counteract almost every affliction and ailment. The yakun natima, and the kolam
natima (masquerade dance) represent two of the historically prominent forms
these dance rituals have taken. Masks used in these rituals provide wonderful
insight into the belief systems and practices which form the core of traditional
Sinhalese beliefs regarding health.
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Pita sanni yakka mask, bile,
6 inches |
Yakun Natima
Of all the dance rituals, the
yakun natima focuses most directly on healing. In Sinhalese thought diseases are
either caused by the natural or the supernatural. In the case of the natural,
traditional Ayurvedic and/ or medical avenues are pursued. In the case of the
supernatural, or where the other systems fail, they have traditionally turned to
the edura for aid through such rituals as the yakun natima.
In both cases, however, it is the
cause rather than the symptom that must be addressed. And in the case of the
supernatural it is the yakku demons that are the cause (6). Collectively, these
disease-afflicting demons are known as the sanni yakku. They are a group of
demons who, in past battles with the Buddha, were ultimately banished from
earth. Living under the loose control of their king Vesamuni (from which the
term for mask, vesmuna, is derived), the yakku are unable to appear physically
upon the earth, but retain the power to afflict, and through the influence of
the Buddha, to heal.
Kana sanni
yakka mask, blindness, 5 1/2 inches |
The Eighteen Sanni Yakku
Every demon has an identity, a
story. Unlike among the Balinese, where demons often represent types (i.e.,
hero, villain, clown, etc.), the Sinhalese yakku represent individual demons
whose lineages and exploits are recited and commemorated. The masks used in the
various rituals are carved to represent particular demons and can, with some
exceptions, be specifically identified. Although the yakku. seem limitless in
number, there is a core group of eighteen which form the focus for the yakun
natima rituals.
Known as the daha-ata sanni yakka,
these demons represent specific afflictions, both mental and physical, which
commonly afflict the Sinhalese villagers. Although the number eighteen has now
become standard, indications are that this number has decreased over time. Nor
are the identities of the eighteen consistent. Different areas, or even
different communities within the same area, will count different demons among
the list.
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Kona sanni yanna mask,
leader of the eighteen sanni yanna 9 inches |
Paul Wirz, in his seminal work
Exorcism and the Art of Healing in Ceylon (1954), lists the following demons and
their effects: Kana-sanniya (blindness), Kora-sanniya (lameness/paralysis),
Gini-jala-sanniya (malaria), Vedda-sanniya (bubonic plague), Demala-sanniya (bad
dreams), Kapala-sanniya (insanity), Golu-sanniya (dumbness/muteness),
Biri-sanniya (deafness). Maru-sanniya (delirium). Amuku sanniya (vomiting),
Gulma-sanniya (parasitic worms), Deva-sanniya (epidemic disease, i.e. typhoid,
cholera), Naga-sanniya (evil dreams particularly with snakes) (7), Murta-sanniya
(swooning, loss of consciousness), Kala-sanniya (black death), Pita-sanniya
(disease related to bile) (8), Vata-sanniya (shaking and burning of limbs), and
Slesma-sanniya (secretions, epilepsy).
Surveys by individuals such as Alain Loviconi and
E.D.W. Jayewardene, have demonstrated significant differences between various
areas and the impossibility of creating a universally recognised list. One area
might include 0lmada sanniya (babbling) and another area Avulun sanniya
(breathing difficulties, chest pains). Contemporary ethnographers such as
Obeyesekere have also noted the addition of certain more contemporary maladies
to the list. For example Vedi sanniya as relating to gunshot wounds,
dramatically reflecting the change in times and the adaptability of this
indigenous system.
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Kori sanni yakka mask,
paralysis, 9 inches |
Although there is no single,
uniform list or all eighteen demons, certain demons do seem consistent and
universal, such as Biri for deafness, Kana for blindness (9), and Golu for
dumbness.
Presiding over these eighteen
yakku is the demon known as the Kola sanni yakka (10), a composite demon
containing and regulating the other eighteen. In the yakun natima it is
appeasing the Kola and gaining his benediction that is most important. His
origin story, as recorded by Wirz, is as follows:
A certain king left for a great
war, leaving behind his queen. He was unaware that she was pregnant. Upon his
return he found his wife to be in an advanced state and ready to give birth. A
handmaid to the queen, through lies and deceptions, convinced the king that it
was not his child but that of the war minister, who had remained behind. In a
fury he ordered the queen tied to a tree and cut in two. The child managed to
survive, living off the remains of his mother. As he grew, the child vowed
revenge on the father.
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Amuku sanni yakka mask,
stomach
disorders, 7 inches |
He gathered poisons from the
different parts of the forest and formed them into eighteen separate lumps which
transformed into demons. Kola sent these demons into the city and charged them
to "capture humans and cause illness through wind, phlegm, and bile".
The havoc wreaked on the city was
awesome. Buddha, sensing this, came to the city and, appearing overhead, ordered
Kola and his demons to stop. Angered, Kola attempted to refute the Buddha,
vehemently justifying his actions based on the grievous wrongs done to him. But
with a "single glittering ray" Buddha subdued Kola and ordered his chiefs to use
water to cleanse the city and wash away the demons. Kola persisted in trying to
justify his actions and the Buddha ultimately relented, granting Kola and his
demons the power to afflict, but charging that they must also heal these
afflictions when tribute is paid.
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Kolam natima mask of the
golden woman with five bodies, 7 1/2 inches |
Identities
Accounts and photographs of masked
dancers with bulging eyes, tusks, and gaping mouths have long attracted
ethnographers and the curious. The result is that European museums boast
significant collections of wondrous masks carved of wood with exquisite
artistry, depicting a phantasm of creatures. The masks of the yakun natima,
befitting their function, are generally gruesome, with distorted faces, cobras
(called naga) coiled like crowns atop their heads, eyes bulging and strong
protruding noses with flaring nostrils. They are powerful carvings designed to
inspire fear, awe, and a recognition of the presence of these supernatural
beings in our daily lives.
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Kolam natina mask of Hettiya
the moneylender, 7 ½ inches |
Although the identities of some
demons are difficult to ascertain out of context, many masks can be readily
identified by form and colour. Biri-sanniya, the demon for deafness, for
example, is consistently depicted with a cobra emerging from one eye and
covering the side of the face where the ear would be. This relates directly to
the Sinhalese belief that the cobra has no ears and therefore must "hear" with
its eyes. Kora sanniya, the demon for lameness/paralysis, is often depicted with
the features of one side of the face drawn up, approximating the signs of a
stroke (11). Amuku sanniya, the demon for stomach disorders and vomiting, is
often depicted with a green face, wide open eyes, and a partially protruding
tongue (12).
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Kolam natina mask of the old
man, 10 inches |
The yakun natima and other masked
dances of the Sinhalese are all based on the concept of appeasement. They
acknowledge the influence and power of the yakka as both the cause and the cure.
They recite their histories, extol their power, and pay tribute to their
prowess. These ceremonies are designed to call forth the "essence" of the
offending demon. Through sweet-talk and offerings or through cajoling and
threats, the yakka is made to remove the affliction.
Kolam Natima
The kolam natima belongs to a
different category of ritualised mask dance than the yakun natima. Today it is
rarely practised and has been gradually losing its importance over the last
hundred years. The early twentieth century writer Otaker Pertold commented that,
even in his day, much of the original import of the dance had been lost, and
that on the few occasions that it was still performed it was undertaken by
laymen rather than edura or those specifically versed in ritual dances. Because
some forty masked characters are involved in this elaborate drama, with
commensurate offerings expected for certain devils and demons, Pertold cites the
great expense involved in staging a full kolam natima as responsible for its
gradual abbreviation.
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Kolam natina mask of the old
woman, 7 inche |
As a ritual, the kolam natima
broadly centres around pregnancy issues. The cravings and desires (dola duka)
that often accompany a pregnancy were traditionally viewed with great suspicion,
and were believed to be some sort of supernatural possession. The masked dance
is thought to have been principally directed against these cravings and to
protect the fetus in general.
The origin story and characters
depicted in the kolam natima reflect some of this original intent:
The queen of a powerful king was
pregnant. As her pregnancy neared term she developed an irresistible craving to
see a masked dance performed. So intense was her desire that her health rapidly
began to fail. 'She beseeched her husband, the king, to grant her this wish. The
king asked his ministers what should be done, but no one knew what a masked
dance was. In his desperation the king pleaded to the god Sekkria, asking that
he should reveal what must be done. Hearing his plea, Sekkria instructed one of
the four guardian gods, the God of Curiosity, to carve masks of sandalwood and
place them in the king's garden with a book detailing what must be done. In the
morning the gardener found masks distributed throughout the garden, some with
the faces of devils, others of animals, and others of noble courtiers and
ladies. The gardener rushed to the king and told him the news. He and the
ministers gathered in the courtyard, discovered the explanatory text and a
masked dance was performed immediately for the benefit of the queen.
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Kolam natina mask of a
monkey, 8 inches |
It is assumed that the mask dance
did the job, and that she suffered no more dola duka, and that the infant was a
healthy one.
Near the final stages of the
performance, as translated by Calloway in 1829, a pregnant woman enters the
scene and after much anguish gives birth to a son, exclaiming: "The beauty of
the child I have now got is like a flower. His prattle will be pleasant, and he
will like much to chew betel [nut]." Care is urged for her son, and the demons
and devils that threaten it are placated with offerings.
There is very little structure to
the dance itself. Following a brief introduction and a retelling of its origins,
the ritual consists primarily of a series of dances and walkthroughs by a set of
characters; gods, humans, animals, and devils, each successive character being
only loosely connected with what preceded. From the introduction at the court,
we move out through the village catching glimpses of village life before moving
into the woods, where the threats and ferocity of the animals give way to the
terror of devils and demons.
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Kolam natina mask of a Nanda
Gara, 11 1/2 inches |
Thus the impact of the kolam
natima lies not in its great narrative strength but in the pure spectacle of the
masks: the Lasquarine soldier who lost his nose in the great battle of Gampelle;
the great Virgin of the Snakes with her radiant face surrounded by coiled
cobras; the golden faced and seductive woman with five bodies (13); the greedy
moneylender, Hettiya (14); the haggard old man (15) and old woman (16) dressed
in rags looking for support from the young villagers; the innocent bullock
attacked by a ferocious tiger and a pack of hungry jackals; cavorting monkeys
with shaggy beards and gaping mouths (17); the awesome devil Nanda Gere with two
devil faces on each side, with gnashing teeth and a body caught in his jaws
(18), and Yamma Raksaya, the black-faced devil of death with his long tusks,
demon faces flanking his own and coiled naga serpents crowning his head (19).
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Kolam natina mask of Yamma
Raksaya, 10 inches |
Construction
Although a brisk trade in masks
for tourists has developed in the Ambalangoda area of coastal Sri Lanka, the
masks used in the various natima ceremonies were traditionally carved by the
edura himself, infusing them with a particular power for the upcoming ceremony.
While the edura in his normal walk of life might be a fisherman or farmer,
rather than coming from an artisan class, the masks themselves often exhibit a
great deal of skill and dexterity in their carving. This reflects the long
apprenticeship period that has traditionally been required of all edura,
studying under an established figure that may often be the father, uncle, or an
elder family member.
Although some of the masks are
quite large and complex in their structure, most of those traditionally used in
the various natima ceremonies are considered threequarter masks. Strapped to the
face, they extend from the middle of the forehead to just below the mouth. This
type of lightweight construction makes it easier for the dancer to wear during
the often spastic and exaggerated movements executed during a performance which
could last up to twelve hours.
Three types of wood are listed as
common to mask construction that could vaty depending upon the region and the
immediate availability of materials; kaddra (strychnox mux vomica) was prized
for its durability (20); eramadu (erythrina india and rukatiana (alsronia
scholaris), the latter being considered inferior and known for breaking easily.
Divided into blocks, the mask is gradually shaped from the wood. Once the final
form is created, the wood is polished using leaves from the mota daliya
boodadiya, or korosa trees. Prior to pain g, the polished wood is treated with a
t(, clay sealant called allidyu that acts as a gesso and creates a better
bonding surface for the pigments to follow.
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Kolam Yamma Raksaya
repainted with commercial paint, 10 inches |
Although contemporary masks are
often painted with commercial pigments, even some of the older masks when they
have been repainted reflect this growing trend (21), traditional techniques
involve the exclusive use of natural organic and mineral-based pigments. White
was derived from makulu clay, green from the leaves of the kikirindiya plant,
the ranavara tree, or the ma creeper, blue from the ripe fruit of thebovitiya
(22), and yellow from hiriyal orpi ment), or yellow pepper. Black was obtained
from charred cotton, and red from cinnabar or a red clay called gurru gal. To
protect these pigments the edura would then coat the mask with a lacquer sealant
called valicci which was derived from a combination of resins from the hal and
dorano trees with beeswax. Hair and beards were simulated through the use of
various dyed fibres, elephant hairs, and monkey skins applied directly to the
mask.
Kolam natima mask painted
blue with bovitiya fruit, 7 inches |
Nineteenth century and earlier
examples preserved in collections retain an amazing vibrancy of colour. An
exceptional kolam natima mask of the demon Naga Raksaya was exhibited in the
Universal Exposition of 1900 in Paris and is shown here (23). Collected during
the middle of the nineteenth century, it is a marvellous example of the strength
and durability of the natural pigments used, as well as illustrative of the
extraordinary carving talents of the edura
Carved from a single piece of wood
with only the small central naga and two ear pendants added, this mask reflects
a master ful handling of materials. The painting itself is quite sophisticated
with a banding pattern criss-crossing the nose, outlining the mouth and
accentuating the eyes. The cinnabar red used for the face glistens through its
lacquer sealant. The underbelly of the large central naga, as it executes a
graceful arc over the face, is banded and appears very reptilian, as does the
crown of three naga on his brow and the coiled naga pend-ants which serve as
ears.
The masks of the yakun natima and
other dance rituals of Sri Lanka represent a re-pository of a fast-fading
culture. Sharing their heritage with a broad range of shaman- based mask
cultures of Asia, these masks speak a language which is increasingly fall ing on
deaf ears. As the role of the edura becomes increasingly marginalised in
Sinhalese society, and education begins to transform traditional concepts of the
interaction between the natural and the super-natural, the yakku and the various
devils are gradually fading from popular con-sciousness. And while mask carving
for tourists and dance performances for the outsider will persist, the
fundamental spirit, potency, and vitality of both natima rituals and their masks
will sadly be lost. It will therefore be primarily through the older examples,
preserved in public and private collections, that future generations will able
to recognise the force and the beauty of the devil dance masks of Sri Lanka.
Kolam natima mask of
Naga Raksay, 18 inches
Sources
Calloway, John, Kolan Nattannawa,
A Cingalese Poem, London, 1829
Jayewardene, E.D.W., Sinhala
Masks, Colombo, 1970
Loviconi, Alain, Masques et
Exorcismes Ceylon Paris, 1981
Obeyesekere, Gananath, "The Ritual
Drama of the Sanni Demons: Collective Representations of Disease in Ceylon" in
Comparative Studies in Society and History, 1969
Pertold, Otaker, Ceremonial Dances
of the Sinhalese, Prague, 1930
Wirz, Paul, Exorcism and the Art
of Healing in Ceylon, Leiden, 1954
The author is the owner of
Akanezumiya in St. Ignatius, Montana, USA,
Tel 406/745-6717, Fax 406/745-6718,
E-mail: alanpate@akanezumiya.com.
He received an M. A. in Korean history and language from Harvard University.
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