India's cuisine is as rich and diverse as her people. The
spectrum of Indian cuisine can be said to lie between two dietary
extremes: vegetarianism and meat-eating.
India is well-known for its tradition of vegetarianism which
has a history spanning more than two millenia. However, this was
not always the case. During the Vedic period (1500-500 BC), the priestly
castes sacrificed animals to appease and gain boons from the
gods, after which the flesh was consumed. But the trend of
meat-eating shifted with the times. The anti-meat eating
sentiment was already felt at the end of the Vedic period. This
period also saw the rise of Buddhisln and Jainism, the founders
of which abhorred the practice of sacrificing and consuming the
flesh of animals, preaching the principle of ahimsa
or ''non-harming''. To win back these converts into their fold,
the Hindu priests advocated against killing, their public appeal
beginning around the Ist century BC. They embraced ahimsa
and followed a vegetarian diet, regarding it as superior to the Brahminical
ideas of sacrifice. Advocating this new doctrine, however, did
not meet with great opposition from meat lovers as there had
already been a religious attitude towards animals since Vedic
times. In fact, only the meat of a sacrificed animal was
considered food. Among the animals that were sacrificed in Vedic
times was the cow, which is virtually deified in the Hinduism of
today. In the Atharvaveda, beef-eating was
prohibited as it was likened to committing a sin against one's ancestors.
But at the beginning of the Epic period (c.l000- 800 BC), this
meat was said to be common food that added vigour not only to the
body but also to the mind. The tables were turned in the 5th
century BC in favour of the cow. When it was discovered at this
time that the cattle population was decreasing at an alarming
rate, people began to realise that a live cow was a greater asset
than its carcass. Since ghee (clarified butter),
milk and yoghurt were vital for temple rituals, this animal began
to enjoy a greater prominence and thus, its flesh became a
prohibited meat. This was the start of the taboo of eating beef
which has become a long-standing feature in Hinduism. But
vegetarianism goes one step further than the avoidance of beef.
Throughout India's history, there are occurrences of
vegetarianism being practised. For example, there is evidence
that in 800 BC, people began to eat more vegetables, pulses,
cereals and fruit, as a consequence of the growing distaste for
meat. Even the priestly castes of some areas that took to
vegetarianism began to offer vegetarian foods to the gods. That
kings such as Ashoka (c. 322-183 13C) forbade the killing of
animals further contributed to the development of vegetarianism.
But the adherence to vegetarianism or a sattvik
diet was not restricted to the Brahmins. From northern India,
orthodox Brahminical values and hence vegetarianism made its way
beyond the Vindhya Mountains establishing itself in the south.
Here, it gained immense popularity even amongst the non-Brahmins
who deemed it as leading a meritorious lifestyle. The Brahmins
continued their vegetarian fare for different reasons, excepting
garlic and onions which were thought to arouse passions. A
vegetarian diet for them meant that their minds would be pure to
conduct the necessary rituals. However not all Brahmins are
vegetarians. A classic example would be the Kashmiri Brahminss
who continue to pride themselves on their mutton dishes. There
are also the Brahmins of Bengal who eat fish. Thus vegetarianism
became more linked with the cuisines of southern India rather
than the north.
This general demarcation in food patterns persists in
present-day India and can be explained. As India has been the
crossroads of many peoples and cultures over centuries, foreign
elements have invariably seeped into its culinary culture,
sometin1es displacing or modifying local cuisines. One such
foreign influence was the Muslims from western Asia whose culture
swept across much of northern India in the 16th century. The
invasion brought changes in many aspects of everyday life in India,
including the palates of the Indian people which became tempered
by a foreign taste.
Muslim infiltration into the subcontinent caused a gastronomic
revolution. In fact, it created a marriage between the
non-vegetarian fare of the Middle East and the rich gravies that
were indigenous to India, creating what is known as Mughlai
cuisine. Spices were added to cream and butter, rice was cooked
with meat, and dishes were garnished with almonds, pistachios,
cashews and raisins. India was also introduced to kebabs
and pilafs (or pulaos). There was a variety of sweetmeats;
the idea of ending the meal with a dessert being of Arabic
origin. Most of these sweets were made of almonds, rice, wheat
flour or coconut, sweetened with sugar and scented with
rose-water.
The Mughal Emperors were of course great patrons of this style
of cooking. Lavish dishes were prepared especially during the
reigns of Jahangir (1605-27) and Shah Jahan (1627-58). In miniature
paintings of this period it can be seen that the vessels used in
court banquets included ones of jade, silver and Chinese
porcelain.
Relations between Muslims and Hindus were cordial especially
during the early Mughal period. Converts to Islam changed their
diet but the majority of the Hindus tended to be vegetarian excepting
the Kshatriya castes and royal families who relished meat.
Besides being vegetarian, the Hindus also prepared their foods
differently. While the Muslims enjoyed naans cooked
in an oven and chapatis prepared on griddles, the
breads of the Hindus consisted of puris (made from wholewheat
flour and oil) and bhaturas (made from white flour,
yeast and oil). The latter were deep-fried in a pot resembling a
wok called the karhai. Ideally such breads were
deep-fried in ghee as it was a pucca
or pure food. But ghee was only used by the rich;
the poor had to be content with using sesamum or mustard oil.
Dhal curry or sambar, was popular and has survived to
this day. In the areas where rice was a predominant cereal,
pancakes called dhosakas or dosas were
made.
Styles of eating differed between the Hindus and the Muslims.
In contrast to the Muslims, the Hindus usually took their meals
individually, a feature that may have developed as a result of
rules regulating eating practices across castes. The Muslim
stress on brotherhood spilled into the dietary arena as communal
eating was the norm. A dastur khan consisting of a
fine white calico cloth was spread on the floor, over which was
placed the various dishes of the meal. It was customary to eat with
the fingers which were washed in a sailabchi before
and after eating. But for serving and carving, there were spoons
and knives. To end a hearty meal, the Muslims, like their Hindu countrymen,
chewed paan or the betel quid. This postprandial
habit symbolises hospitality extended by the hosts to the guests.
Although the Mughals did not sustain power for long, their
food habits have continued to this day. Mughlai cuisine, although
emphasising meat, co-exists with vegetarianism. Like all other
facets of life, India's culinary tradition is constantly changing
in relation to vegetarianism and non-vegetarianism whereby
adherence to a specific food habit becomes a powerful symbol of caste,
ethnic group and religious orientation.
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